A short history of the origins and development of the English la
What is English?
A short history of the origins and development of the English language
The history of the English language really started with the arrival of three Germanic tribes who invaded Britain during the 5th century AD. These tribes, the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, crossed the North Sea from what today is Denmark and northern Germany. At that time the inhabitants of Britain spoke a Celtic language. But most of the Celtic speakers were pushed west and north by the invaders—mainly into what is now Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The Angles came from Englaland and their language was called Englisc—from which the words England and English are derived.
The map below shows how the Germanic invaders entered Britain on the east and south coasts in the 5th century.
Germanic invaders entered Britain on the east and south coasts in the 5th century.
 Part of Beowulf, a poem written in Old English. |
Old English (450-1100 AD)
The invading Germanic tribes spoke similar languages, which in Britain developed into what we now call Old English. Old English did not sound or look like English today. Native English speakers now would have great difficulty understanding Old English. Nevertheless, about half of the most commonly used words in Modern English have Old English roots. The words be, strong and water, for example, derive from Old English. Old English was spoken until around 1100.
 An example of Middle English by Chaucer. |
Middle English (1100-1500)
In 1066 William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy (part of modern France), invaded and conquered England. The new conquerors (called the Normans) brought with them a kind of French, which became the language of the Royal Court, and the ruling and business classes. For a period there was a kind of linguistic class division, where the lower classes spoke English and the upper classes spoke French. In the 14th century English became dominant in Britain again, but with many French words added. This language is called Middle English. It was the language of the great poet Chaucer (c1340-1400), but it would still be difficult for native English speakers to understand today.
Modern English
 Hamlet's famous "To be, or not to be" lines, written in Early Modern English by Shakespeare. |
Early Modern English (1500-1800)
Towards the end of Middle English, a sudden and distinct change in pronunciation (the Great Vowel Shift) started, with vowels being pronounced shorter and shorter. From the 16th century the British had contact with many peoples from around the world. This, and the Renaissance of Classical learning, meant that many new words and phrases entered the language. The invention of printing also meant that there was now a common language in print. Books became cheaper and more people learned to read. Printing also brought standardization to English. Spelling and grammar became fixed, and the dialect of London, where most publishing houses were, became the standard. In 1604 the first English dictionary was published.
Late Modern English (1800-Present)
The main difference between Early Modern English and Late Modern English is vocabulary. Late Modern English has many more words, arising from two principal factors: firstly, the Industrial Revolution and technology created a need for new words; secondly, the British Empire at its height covered one quarter of the earth's surface, and the English language adopted foreign words from many countries.
Varieties of English
From around 1600, the English colonization of North America resulted in the creation of a distinct American variety of English. Some English pronunciations and words "froze" when they reached America. In some ways, American English is more like the English of Shakespeare than modern British English is. Some expressions that the British call "Americanisms" are in fact original British expressions that were preserved in the colonies while lost for a time in Britain (for example trash for rubbish, loan as a verb instead of lend, and fall for autumn; another example, frame-up, was re-imported into Britain through Hollywood gangster movies). Spanish also had an influence on American English (and subsequently British English), with words like canyon, ranch, stampede and vigilante being examples of Spanish words that entered English through the settlement of the American West. French words (through Louisiana) and West African words (through the slave trade) also influenced American English (and so, to an extent, British English).
Today, American English is particularly influential, due to the USA's dominance of cinema, television, popular music, trade and technology (including the Internet). But there are many other varieties of English around the world, including for example Australian English, New Zealand English, Canadian English, South African English, Indian English and Caribbean English.
The Germanic Family of Languages
English is a member of the Germanic family of languages.
Germanic is a branch of the Indo-European language family.
| A brief chronology of English | ||
|---|---|---|
| BC 55 | Roman invasion of Britain by Julius Caesar. | Local inhabitants speak Celtish |
| BC 43 | Roman invasion and occupation. Beginning of Roman rule of Britain. | |
| 436 | Roman withdrawal from Britain complete. | |
| 449 | Settlement of Britain by Germanic invaders begins | |
| 450-480 | Earliest known Old English inscriptions. | Old English |
| 1066 | William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, invades and conquers England. | |
| c1150 | Earliest surviving manuscripts in Middle English. | Middle English |
| 1348 | English replaces Latin as the language of instruction in most schools. | |
| 1362 | English replaces French as the language of law. English is used in Parliament for the first time. | |
| c1388 | Chaucer starts writing The Canterbury Tales. | |
| c1400 | The Great Vowel Shift begins. | |
| 1476 | William Caxton establishes the first English printing press. | Early Modern English |
| 1564 | Shakespeare is born. | |
| 1604 | Table Alphabeticall, the first English dictionary, is published. | |
| 1607 | The first permanent English settlement in the New World (Jamestown) is established. | |
| 1616 | Shakespeare dies. | |
| 1623 | Shakespeare's First Folio is published | |
| 1702 | The first daily English-language newspaper, The Daily Courant, is published in London. | |
| 1755 | Samuel Johnson publishes his English dictionary. | |
| 1776 | Thomas Jefferson writes the American Declaration of Independence. | |
| 1782 | Britain abandons its American colonies. | |
| 1828 | Webster publishes his American English dictionary. | Late Modern English |
| 1922 | The British Broadcasting Corporation is founded. | |
| 1928 | The Oxford English Dictionary is published. | |
نمونه سوال پیش دانشگاهی 2
In the Name of Allah سوالات زبان انگلیسی ( 2 ) پیش دانشگاهی شهدای گمنام ارد یبهشت ماه 1387 – مدت امتحان : 90 دقیقه نام و نام خانوادگی: ------------------------------------------------------ |
A. Fill in the blanks with the words given. There is one extra word. ( 4 points ) (( devoted – poverty – samples – unions – artificial – financial – suffering – connected – access )) 1. He lost all his money and died in -----------------------------. 2. Workers decided to form ------------------------------ to protect their rights. 3. Please tell me, are these flowers natural or ------------------------------? 4. The astronauts did experiments on the --------------------------------- of rock. 5. This software makes it easy to ---------------------------- information in the data base. 6. I don't know why the computer is not -------------------------------- to the printer. 7. Professor Smith has ----------------------------- his life to scientific research. 8. My neighbor is ----------------------------- from strange disease. | |
B. Match the definitions in column A with the words in column B. There is one extra word in column B. ( 2 points ) --------------------A------------------ ------------------B---------------- 9. a group of people having the same religion, job, etc. a) density 10. moving something from one place to another b) community 11. the amount of something in a unit volume, area, or length c) extreme 12. most serious or unusual; beyond the usual limits d) excellent e) transfer | |
C. Choose the best choices for the following items regarding the meaning. ( 2 points ) 13. One of the factors that causes unemployment seems to be -----------------------education system. a) private b) specific c) irrelevant d) local 14. Internet has made it possible for people to ----------------------- with one another effectively. a) combine b) communicate c) contrast d) concentrate 15. Some of the engineers have been sent on a research ------------------------- to France. a) mission b) mass c) sign d) formation 16. Nowadays, a --------------------------- approach to learning is used by teachers in classes. In this way, sound, pictures, film and text are used together. a) complex b) graphics c) problem – solving d) multimedia | |
D. Fill in the blanks with the words of your own. ( 1 points ) 17. It is an instrument that magnifies, or makes larger, distant objects. It is a --------------------------. 18. An organization for helping people in need and taking care of persons nobody is prepared to look after. It is a ---------------------------. 1 E. Choose the best choices for the following items regarding the grammar. ( 2 points ) 19. A: Mina didn't catch the train. Do you know why? B: I'm sure that she ----------------- have left home too late. a) might b) should c) must d) could 20. My friend does not know very much about computers,---------------- he is an educated person. a)since b)though c) because d) while 21. We set the alarm clock ------------------------- get up late in the morning. a) so as not to b) in order that c) so that d) in order to not 22. Some people prefer to work for the government, -------------- others like to be self- employed. a) whether b) when c) since d) whereas ____________________________________________________________________________________ F. Combine the following sentences with the words given in parentheses. ( 2 points ) 23. Ali turned down the television. He wanted to see the football game. ( so that ) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 24. Mr. Hamidi has lots of money. He doesn't help the poor people. ( although ) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ____________________________________________________________________________________ G. Put the words in parentheses in the right order to make meaningful sentences. ( 2 points ) 25. Tom hurt his back badly. He ---------------------------------------------------------------. ( that – shouldn't – lifted – heavy box – have ) 26. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------, others do not. ( a lot – think – while – many men – their health – about ) ____________________________________________________________________________________ H. Complete the following words with the words given. There are two extra words. ( 2 points )
( whereas – so that – so as to – even though – must – might ) 27. I know many students who are not able to use the Internet, ------------------- it is available for the public. 28. John was born in a rich family, ----------------- Bill has to work hard in a factory. 29. A: Do you know why Tina went to bed so early? B: I'm not sure. She ------------------ have been too tired. 30. David is reading a new book on space information ----------------- he will get more information. ____________________________________________________________________________________ I. Complete the following sentences using their FUNCTIONS . ( 2 points ) 31. Child labor is work that is dangerous such as ---------------------------------------------------------. 32. A satellite is any object that --------------------------------------------------. 33. A computer is any programmable machine that -------------------data and then ------------------ them into information we can use. 34. Edison's memory will live on because of ---------------------------------------------------------------. |
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J. Fill in the blanks of the following paragraphs . There is one extra word. ( 3 points )
(( manufacturing – envelops – domestic – compose – remove – destination – urban ))
Most working children in rural areas are found in agriculture; --------35-------- children work in trade and services, with fewer in -------36----------, construction and --------37---------- services. Postal mail takes at least a day – often one week – to get to its --------38--------, you must have --------39--------and stamps and find a mailbox. E- mail is quicker to ------4o----------, arrives faster and does not require a stamp. | |
K. Read the following sentences and choose the best choices. ( 4 points ) 41. Mother Teresa was given a number of awards including a Noble Peace Prize in 1979, for her promotion of peace and brotherhood among the nations. According to this sentence, Mother Teresa -------------------------------------------------------------. a) worked only for the people in her country b) liked to be a famous Noble Prize Winner c)helped peace and brotherhood grow in the world d) wanted to receive rewards as her purpose 42. The launch of first International Space Station in 1998began a new era in space exploration. This sentence means that in 1998 --------------------------------------------------------------------------. a) people sent first units of International Space Station to space b) space exploration started for the first time in history c) some units of International Space Station were built d) astronauts made new observations in space 43. Most child laborers are also being robbed of their rights, including not only the right to develop to the highest level through education, but also the right to a childhood. We understand from these statements that child laborers ---------------------------------------------.
a) rob other children's rights in society b) can never go to colleges to be educated c) are educated like other children d) spend their childhood with no problem 44. The Internet is great since it brings together the best qualities of communications system that were used before and, at the same time, improves on their worst features. The above sentences say that Internet ----------------------------------------------------------------------. a) seems to be the only device of communications technology b) consists of radio, television and telephone c) works in the same way as other information systems do d) combines better qualities in comparison to other systems |
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L. Read the following passage carefully and answer the questions as required. ( 4 points ) Perhaps most people have experience of forgetting. They are not aware of a simple but important fact: Memory can be improved. Research will show you how. First, relax. If you are over worried about remembering something, you'll forget it. And avoid being negative. If you keep telling yourself that your memory is bad, your mind will come to believe it and you won't remember things. When you forget something, do not care very much, because it has a negative effect on you and your memory. To remember more, you'll need to take an active role. Your memory can be strengthened through exercise. Look for opportunities to exercise your memory. For example, if you're learning a language, try to actively remember irregular verbs. To be aware of things, try to make mental pictures of what you see. Don't just put your keys down! If you want to find them again, make a mental picture of the place where you're putting them. 45. What is the best title for the passage? a) Experience of Forgetting b) How to Improve Your Memory c) Negative Effect on Mind d) How to Remember Irregular Verbs 46. According to the passage, one of the reasons people have problems remembering things is -------------------------------------------------. a) not being positive b) not believing themselves c) not being experienced d) not remembering irregular verbs 47. According to the passage, what is the important fact about memory? a) It can be changed to better b) It can never be changed c) It needs careful attention d) It should be loaded by different things 48. The word " strengthened" in the second paragraph, has the closest meaning to ---------------. a) instructed b) involved c) influenced d) informed 49. Making a mental picture of things has a positive effect on the memory. TRUE FALSE |
PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT
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An Article
The Transformative Power of Reading: One Man, Two Burros, and 4,800 Books
I know about libraries and bookmobiles, but this was the first time I’d heard of a Biblioburro. About a decade ago, Colombian schoolteacher Luis Soriano decided to share his collection of books with people who do not have books. Soriano believes in the transformative power of reading. He says that providing books for people who don’t have books can improve the impoverished region in northern Colombia where he lives.
Nearly every weekend for the last 10 years Soriano and his burros, Alpha and Beto, travel with textbooks, encyclopedias, and novels from Soriano’s personal library. Eager children wait at stops along the way.
Soriano’s personal library was small—perhaps 70 books—until he reached out to noted Colombian author and journalist Juan Gossaín. Soriano had listened to Gossaín read excerpts from his newest novel over the radio. He wrote to the author and asked if he’d lend a copy of the book to the Biblioburro. After Gossaín broadcast details about the Biblioburro on his radio program, book donations poured in from all over Colombia—4,800 of them
Traveling with his Biblioburro is not without risks: Soriano once fractured his leg from a fall and has been accosted by bandits who, after tying him to a tree, stole a book by Paulo Coelho. “For some reason Coelho is at the top of everyone’s list of favorites,” he grinned. Still, it’s worth it. Recently, as a girl read from a book of poetry she said, ؟“That is so beautiful, Maestro. When are you coming back